Vasospastic angina: a review on diagnostic approach and management.

Vasospastic angina (VSA) refers to chest pain experienced as a consequence of myocardial ischaemia caused by epicardial coronary spasm, a sudden narrowing of the vessels responsible for an inadequate supply of blood and oxygen. Coronary artery spasm is a heterogeneous phenomenon that can occur in patients with non-obstructive coronary arteries and obstructive coronary artery disease, with transient spasm causing chest pain and persistent spasm potentially leading to acute myocardial infarction (MI). VSA was originally described as Prinzmetal angina or variant angina, classically presenting at rest, unlike most cases of angina (though in some patients, vasospasm may be triggered by exertion, emotional, mental or physical stress), and associated with transient electrocardiographic changes (transient ST-segment elevation, depression and/or T-wave changes). Ischaemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries (INOCA) is not a benign condition, as patients are at elevated risk of cardiovascular events including acute coronary syndrome, hospitalization due to heart failure, stroke and repeat cardiovascular procedures. INOCA patients also experience impaired quality of life and associated increased healthcare costs. VSA, an endotype of INOCA, is associated with major adverse events, including sudden cardiac death, acute MI and syncope, necessitating the study of the most effective treatment options currently available. The present literature review aims to summarize current data relating to the diagnosis and management of VSA and provide details on the sequence that treatment should follow.

Diagnosis and treatment of epicardial coronary artery spasmVasospastic angina (VSA) refers to chest pain experienced as a consequence of a sudden narrowing of the epicardial coronary arteries. VSA can occur in patients with non-obstructive coronary arteries and obstructive coronary artery disease, with transient spasm causing chest pain and persistent spasm potentially leading to acute myocardial infarction. Reduced blood and oxygen supply in patients with non-obstructive coronary arteries is not a benign condition, as patients are at elevated risk of adverse cardiovascular events. These patients also experience impaired quality of life and associated increased healthcare costs. This review aims to summarise current data relating to the diagnosis of VSA and provides details on treatment strategies.

Exploring the ECG "6+2" Phenomenon in Coronary Artery Disease and Coronary Artery Spasm: A Case Report Analysis and Treatment Implications.

BACKGROUND Although coronary artery disease and coronary artery spasm (CAS) can lead to acute myocardial infarction, there are clear differences in treatment between coronary heart disease and CAS, and the therapeutic schedule should not be confused. Furthermore, electrocardiogram (ECG) "6+2" phenomenon is recommend as a specific ECG indicator for lesions in the left main coronary artery or multiple vessels. Currently, no reports of this phenomenon in CAS exist. CASE REPORT A 72-year-old man had history of recurrent chest pain for over 6 years, with episodes lasting about 10 min and resolving with rest. He experienced symptom recurrence and exacerbation due to substance abuse. He was admitted to our Emergency Department for chest pain at rest. His emergency ECG revealed a 6+2 phenomenon, accompanied by troponin levels exceeding 18 times the reference value. Promptly, we conducted coronary angiography, with unexpected normal findings. Following thorough assessment, we postulated the patient could have CAS. Subsequent to medical team intervention, the patient's ECG normalized, leading to his discharge upon condition stabilization. CONCLUSIONS We report a case of CAS in a patient with ECG 6+2 phenomenon, without significant coronary artery stenosis. This differs from transient ST-segment elevation on ECG, a well-recognized hallmark of CAS; however, such a presentation has not been documented before. Additionally, treatment strategies for myocardial ischemic conditions stemming from coronary atherosclerosis diverge from those employed for CAS. Therefore, clinicians should advocate for coronary angiography whenever feasible. This approach serves to elucidate the underlying disease etiology and facilitates the administration of precision-targeted interventions for patients.

Vasoespasmo en microcirugía: revisión de la literatura y recomendaciones para su manejo / Vasospasm in microsurgery: literature review and clinical recommendations

Introducción y objetivo: Los colgajos libres microquirúrgicos se han convertido en una herramienta indispensable en Cirugía Reconstructiva. El vasoespasmo es una entidad que puede producir fallo del colgajo. El objetivo de este trabajo es evaluar las distintas medidas terapéuticas para la prevención y tratamiento del vasoespasmo y proponer un algoritmo de manejo para esta complicación. Material y método: Revisión bibliográfica de estudios de diseño experimental o cuasi experimental que evalúen el efecto de distintas intervenciones para la prevención y el tratamiento del vasoespasmo. Resultados: Incluimos 31 estudios experimentales, de los cuales 5 analizan intervenciones no farmacológicas y 26 intervenciones farmacológicas. Todos los estudios experimentales fueron realizados en modelos animales. Dentro de las intervenciones no farmacológicas estudiadas, la adventicetomía y el adecuado control de la hemostasia mostraron ser medidas efectivas para la prevención del vasoespasmo. Dentro de las intervenciones farmacológicas tópicas, la lidocaína, la papaverina, el sulfato de magnesio al 10% y el verapamilo demostraron consistentemente su efectividad en la prevención y tratamiento del vasoespasmo. Dentro de las intervenciones farmacológicas sistémicas, la pentoxifilina y la prostaglandina E1 fueron las más efectivas para el manejo del vasoespasmo. Otros fármacos mostraron evidencia controvertida: nifedipino, nicardipino y prostaglandina E1 (todos de aplicación tópica); nicardipino, nifedipino y verapamilo (todos de aplicación sistémica). Conclusiones: La evidencia actual respecto a la efectividad de medidas orientadas al manejo del vasoespasmo en microcirugía se basan principalmente en estudios animales. El algoritmo de manejo del vasoespasmo que presentamos se sustenta en la experiencia clínica acumulada y la mejor evidencia actualmente disponible...

Background and objective: Microsurgical free flaps have become an indispensable tool in Reconstructive Surgery. Vasospasm is an entity that can cause flap failure. Our objective is to evaluate the different therapies for vasospasm prevention and treatment and to propose a management algorithm for this complication. Methods: Bibliographic review of studies of experimental or quasi-experimental design that assesed the effect of interventions for the prevention and treatment of vasospasm. Results: Thirty one experimental studies were included, of which 5 analyzed non-pharmacological interventions and 26 pharmacological interventions. All experimental studies were performed in animal models. Among the non-pharmacological interventions studied, adventicetomy and adequate control of hemostasis proved to be effective measures for the prevention of vasospasm. Within topical pharmacological interventions, lidocaine, papaverine, 10% magnesium sulfate, and verapamil consistently demonstrated their effectiveness in the prevention and treatment of vasospasm. Within the systemic pharmacological interventions, pentoxifylline and prostaglandin E1 were the most effective interventions for the management of vasospasm. Other drugs showed controversial evidence: nifedipine, nicardipine and prostaglandin E1 (topicallys); nicardipine, nifedipine and verapamil (systemics). Conclusions: The current evidence regarding the effectiveness of measu-res aimed at managing vasospasm in microsurgery is based mainly on animal studies. The vasospasm management algorithm presented is based on accumulated clinical experience and the best currently available evidence. Having this therapeutic strategy makes it possible to standardize management in clinical practice for rapid decision-making. Level of evidence 5c Therapeutic.(AU)

Refractory coronary vasospasm and recurrent cardiac arrest.

We present a case of recurrent vasospasm as an uncommon cause of ventricular fibrillation in a young female patient who was found to have a genetic mutation of unknown significance in the desmoplakin (DSP) gene and ultimately required an implantable cardiac defibrillator and percutaneous coronary intervention. Refractory vasospasm as a cause of chest pain and cardiac arrest may be under-recognised. In this manuscript, we highlight the natural history of refractory vasospasm, treatment considerations including medical therapy, implantable cardiac defibrillator and percutaneous coronary intervention. Lastly, we explore the potential correlation between the DSP mutation and her clinical presentation and the growing importance of genetic testing in unexplained cardiac arrest.

Simultaneous total occlusion due to spasm of 2 main coronary arteries: A case report.

RATIONALE: Coronary artery spasm (CAS) defined by severe reversible focal or diffuse vasoconstriction, plays an essential role in the pathophysiology of acute coronary syndrome but is not very common in the clinic. Due to its transience, it is difficult to diagnose CAS directly, many patients are diagnosed by clinical experience. Here, we report the diagnosis and treatment of a rare case of simultaneous total occlusion due to spasm of the two main coronary arteries by coronary angiography (CAG). PATIENT CONCERNS: A 47-year-old man with no medical history was admitted to our emergency room complaining of sudden-onset chest pain lasting 3 hours. Emergency CAG showed total occlusion of the proximal left anterior descending artery and right coronary artery. DIAGNOSES: Acute myocardial infarction caused by CAS was diagnosed, according to CAG findings and test results. INTERVENTIONS: Intracoronary injection of nitroglycerin and anti-spasm medication. OUTCOMES: The patient was discharged on the 8th day with complete resolution of symptoms and normalization of the electrocardiography findings. No ischemic events occurred during a follow-up for 27 months. LESSONS: This case highlights the significance of identifying CAS in patients with acute myocardial infarction and avoiding blind interventional stent therapy, which requires closer attention from clinicians.

Recurrent Coronary Vasospasm: A Case of Kounis Syndrome from Anaphylaxis to Contrast Dye.

Kounis syndrome is characterized by acute coronary syndrome due to coronary vasospasm or thrombosis following exposure to an allergic stimulus. The presentation can be compounded by cardiovascular collapse due to cardiogenic shock from coronary vasospasm and associated vasodilatory shock from anaphylaxis. A high index of suspicion is crucial for prompt initiation of treatment, which focuses on managing the allergic or anaphylactic process. Here we present a case of coronary vasospasm and anaphylactic shock due to contrast dye exposure during percutaneous coronary intervention of an unstable coronary lesion and its associated diagnostic and therapeutic challenges.

Angina due to coronary artery spasm (variant angina): diagnosis and intervention strategies.

INTRODUCTION: Since Prinzmetal first described a 'variant' form of angina pectoris, with predominantly resting episodes of pain and cyclic severity variations, it has gradually become apparent that this clinical presentation is caused by episodes of coronary artery spasm (CAS) involving focal or diffuse changes in large and/or small coronary arteries in the presence or absence of 'fixed' coronary artery stenoses. However, most clinicians have only limited understanding of this group of disorders. AREAS COVERED: We examine the clinical presentation of CAS, associated pathologies outside the coronary vasculature, impediments to making the diagnosis, provocative diagnostic tests, available and emerging treatments, and the current understanding of pathogenesis. EXPERT OPINION: CAS is often debilitating and substantially under-diagnosed and occur mainly in women. Many patients presenting with CAS crises have non-diagnostic ECGs and normal serum troponin concentrations, but CAS can be suspected on the basis of history and association with migraine, Raynaud's phenomenon and Kounis syndrome. Definitive diagnosis requires provocative testing at coronary angiography. Treatment still centers around the use of calcium antagonists, but with greater understanding of pathogenesis, new management options are emerging.

Coronary spasm: unpredictability and safety in treatment key role of hybrid setting.

The present case highlights the crucial role of hybrid setting for diagnosis and treatment of refractory coronary spasms.

Beneficial effects of exercise training on physical performance in patients with vasospastic angina.

AIMS: In vasospastic angina (VSA), coronary vasomotion abnormalities could develop not only in epicardial coronary arteries but also in coronary microvessels, where calcium channel blockers (CCBs) have limited efficacy. However, efficacy of exercise training for VSA remains to be elucidated. We thus aimed to examine whether vasodilator capacity of coronary microvessels is impaired in VSA patients, and if so, whether exercise exerts beneficial effects on the top of CCBs. METHODS: We performed 2 clinical protocols. In the protocol 1, we measured myocardial blood flow (MBF) using adenosine-stress dynamic computed tomography perfusion (CTP) in 38 consecutive VSA patients and 17 non-VSA controls. In the protocol 2, we conducted randomized controlled trial, where 20 VSA patients were randomly assigned to either 3-month exercise training group (Exercise group) or Non-Exercise group (n= 10 each). RESULTS: In the protocol 1, MBF on CTP was significantly decreased in the VSA group compared with the Non-VSA group (138 ± 6 vs 166 ± 10 ml/100 g/min, P = 0.02). In the protocol 2, exercise capacity was significantly increased in the Exercise group than in the Non-Exercise group (11.5 ± 0.5 to 15.4 ± 1.8 vs 12.6 ± 0.7 to 14.0 ± 0.8 ml/min/kg, P < 0.01). MBF was also significantly improved after 3 months only in the Exercise group (Exercise group, 145 ± 12 to 172 ± 8 ml/100 g/min, P < 0.04; Non-Exercise group, 143 ± 14 to 167 ± 8 ml/100 g/min, P = 0.11), although there were no significant between-group differences. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide the first evidence that, in VSA patients, exercise training on the top of CCBs treatment may be useful to improve physical performance, although its effect on MBF may be minimal.

Alternate recurrent coronary artery spasm and stress cardiomyopathy: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Coronary artery spasm (CAS) and stress cardiomyopathy (SC) have different characteristic clinical manifestations in the case of suspicious myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries. Established recurrence rates of both conditions have been reported, however, alternate recurrent CAS and SC in the same individual have not been described. CASE PRESENTATION: A 59-year-old man suffered from atypical chest pain in the first episode, acute heart attack in the second and third episodes (totally 3 times over a period of approximately 5 years). During the first episode, he visited our hospital with mild paroxysmal chest pain without obvious inducement for approximately 2 years. He was underdiagnosed at that time without other obvious findings except the poor R wave progression in V1-3 leads revealed in electrocardiogram. At 4 months after the first episode, he suffered from a heart attack (the second episode) and was diagnosed with SC based on the coronary angiography (CAG) and left ventriculography findings of nonobstructive coronary arteries combined with a classic apical ballooning shape. At 31 months after the second episode, he suffered another heart attack (the third episode) and was diagnosed with CAS based on the CAG results of recoverable severe multivessel stenoses. During the episodes, partial reversible nature of apical hypokinesis was observed in echocardiogram. In retrospect, the patient suffered silent CAS in the first episode, SC in the second episode, and severe multivessel CAS in the third episode. CONCLUSION: The unusual presentations observed in this case have not been reported. This case suggests that cardiologists should be aware of the possibility of alternate recurrent CAS and SC in the same individual. Provocative tests for spasm and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging might help gain more insights into this issue.

Recurrent attack of acute myocardial infarction complicated with ventricular fibrillation due to coronary vasospasm within a myocardial bridge: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Myocardial bridge (MB) often an inoffensive condition that goes in one or more of the coronary arteries through the heart muscle instead of lying on its surface. MBs sometimes leads to myocardial ischemic symptoms such as chest pain, even an occurrence of myocardial infarction. However, reports of severe and recurrent cardiac adverse events related to the MBs are rare. CASE PRESENTATION: A 44-year-old male patient who suffered from a four-hour crushing chest pain ten years ago, was diagnosed as acute anterior ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). The initial findings of coronary angiography (CAG) showed MB was located in the middle part of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD). The patient was managed medically. Another re-attack of similar previous chest pain characteristics occured just after 3 days of discharge. Supra-arterial myotomy and CABG were the next adopted management. Postoperative progression was uneventful. However, 32 months after surgical treatment, the patient experienced an abrupt onset of chest pain accompanied by loss of consciousness. The ECG showed ventricular fibrillation (VF). After electrical cardioversion, an immediate CAG followed by CTA was performed which excluded thrombus or acute occlusion in the native coronary artery and an occlusion was observed at the end of the left internal mammary artery. An implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) was successfully performed for prevention of malignant arrhythmia. During ten years of follow-up, no complications have been identified. CONCLUSIONS: Although MB is mostly benign, it may lead to significant cardiovascular consequences. Supra-arterial myotomy is an appropriate treatment option for this patient who failed to optimal medical therapy. Furthermore, ICD implantation must be considered in order to prevent malignant ventricular arrhythmia caused by continuous spasm resulting in ischemia. Further investigations are required to confirm the clinical effectiveness of these procedures.

Long-Term Follow-Up in Patients With Stable Angina and Unobstructed Coronary Arteries Undergoing Intracoronary Acetylcholine Testing.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the prognosis of a large cohort of patients with stable angina and unobstructed coronaries undergoing acetylcholine spasm testing. BACKGROUND: Coronary artery spasm can be found in up to 60% of patients with symptoms of myocardial ischemia despite unobstructed coronary arteries. METHODS: Consecutive symptomatic patients with unobstructed coronary arteries undergoing acetylcholine testing to detect epicardial or microvascular coronary spasm were prospectively enrolled. After a median follow-up period of 7.2 years (6.5 to 7.9 years), data regarding mortality, nonfatal myocardial infarction, stroke, repeat coronary angiography, recurrent symptoms, and quality of life were obtained in 736 patients (57% women, mean age 62 ± 12 years). RESULTS: In total, 55 deaths (7.5%), 8 nonfatal myocardial infarctions (1.4%), and 12 strokes (2.2%) occurred during the follow-up period. Recurrent symptoms were reported by 64% of patients, and repeat coronary angiography was performed in 12% of cases. Multivariate analysis revealed epicardial spasm as a predictor of nonfatal myocardial infarction (hazard ratio: 14.469; 95% confidence interval: 1.735 to 120.646) and repeat angiography (hazard ratio: 1.703; 95% confidence interval: 1.062 to 2.732), whereas patients with microvascular spasm more often had recurrent angina at follow-up (hazard ratio: 1.311; 95% confidence interval: 1.013 to 1.697). CONCLUSIONS: In this long-term follow-up study, the overall prognosis of patients with coronary spasm was favorable. Patients with epicardial spasm were at increased risk for myocardial infarction and repeat angiography, while microvascular spasm was associated with recurrent angina. Acetylcholine testing may help identify patients at increased risk for adverse cardiac events among this overall low-risk population.

Massive coronary spasm of the native coronary system after coronary artery bypass grafting: Two patients with different outcomes.

We report the cases of two patients who developed a massive spasm of the native coronary system in the immediate postoperative period, following a coronary artery bypass grafting operation with different outcomes. The first patient was hemodynamic stable and it was manifested as ischemic electrocardiographic changes in different leads (ST elevation or depression). He was treated with intracoronary and intravenous administration of nitroglycerin and calcium channel blocker and had a favorable outcome. The second patient died due to multiorgan failure and hemorrhagic shock, after the implantation of a central venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

Questionnaire in patients with aborted sudden cardiac death due to coronary spasm in Japan.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the medical or mechanical therapy, and the present knowledge of Japanese cardiologists about aborted sudden cardiac death (ASCD) due to coronary spasm. METHODS: A questionnaire was developed regarding the number of cases of ASCD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD), and medical therapy in ASCD patients due to coronary spasm. The questionnaire was sent to the Japanese general institutions at random in 204 cardiology hospitals. RESULTS: The completed surveys were returned from 34 hospitals, giving a response rate of 16.7%. All SCD during the 5 years was observed in 5726 patients. SCD possibly due to coronary spasm was found in 808 patients (14.0%) and ASCD due to coronary spasm was observed in 169 patients (20.9%). In 169 patients with ASCD due to coronary spasm, one or two coronary vasodilators was administered in two-thirds of patients [113 patients (66.9%)], while more than 3 coronary vasodilators were found in 56 patients (33.1%). ICD was implanted in 117 patients with ASCD due to coronary spasm among these periods including 35 cases with subcutaneous ICD. Majority of cause of ASCD was ventricular fibrillation, whereas pulseless electrical activity was observed in 18 patients and complete atrioventricular block was recognized in 7 patients. Mean coronary vasodilator number in ASCD patients with ICD was significantly lower than that in those without ICD (2.1 ± 0.9 vs. 2.6 ± 1.0, p < 0.001). Although 16 institutions thought that the spasm provocation tests under the medications had some clinical usefulness of suppressing the next fatal arrhythmias, spasm provocation tests under the medication were performed in just 4 institutions. CONCLUSIONS: In the real world, there was no fundamental strategy for patients with ASCD due to coronary spasm. Each institution has each strategy for these patients. Cardiologists should have the same strategy and the same knowledge about ASCD patients due to coronary spasm in the future.